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Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Reasons for choosing the topic of research . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Research Background:"Fluidity" and Digital Consumption Age 8
1.3 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Research Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Relevant Theoretical Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1 Anthropology of Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.2 Digital Religious Practice or Digital Spirituality? . . . . . . . 23
2 Research Methods: From Physically Embodied Presence to Virtually Embodied Presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Physically Embodied Presence: Research Methods Offline . . . 34
2.1.1 Historical Documents Research And Comparative Related Research 34
2.1.2 Access to Fieldwork and Participant Observation . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Virtually Embodied Presence: Research Methods Online . . . . 40
2.2.1 Digital Ethnography and Digital Participant Observation . . . 40
2.2.2 A New Specific Ethnography Approach: WeChat Ethnography 44
3 Human Geography and Daily Life Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1 General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1.1 Shangri_la Human Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.2 Population, Ethnic, and Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.3 Religious Affiliation and Religious Practice Space . . . . . . . 66
3.2 The largest Tibetan Buddhist Monastery in Yunnan Province: Ganden Sumtseling Monastery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.1 The Location of the Monastery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.2 The History of the Monastery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.3 The Institutional Framework of the Monastery . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.4 The Function of the Monastery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4 Offline Daily Life and Self-Identity of Tibetan Buddhist Monks 79
4.1 Change of lay identity: Becoming a Buddhist Monk . . . . . . 82
4.1.1 JC monk's household and monastic life . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.2 "It is liberating to be a monk" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2 Monastic Organization: Regular Monastic Lifestyle . . . . . . 103
4.2.1 Three pillars of monastic institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2.2 Monks' daily practices and routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.3 Education Mechanism and Monastic Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . 133
4.3.1 General Titles and Their Educational Structure . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.2 Administrative Titles and Their Monastic Hierarchy . . . . . . 139
4.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5 Online Changed Lifestyle and Self-expression . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.1 Changed lifestyle through digital technology . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.1.1 "I feel like I have a closer bond with my family". . . . . . . . 149
5.1.2 Digital Spirituality: A Controversial Practice Amongst Monks . 152
5.2 Digital Self-expression through WeChat . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.1 Solid Monastic Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.2.2 Reconstruction of Digital Identity Hierarchy and Religious Authority185
5.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6 Solid Monastic Authority: Digital Indexicality and Digital Consumer Spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1 A New Kind of Digital Spiritual Service : WeChat Chanting Scriptures Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1.1 Digital Indexicality in WeChat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.1.2 Solid Monastic Authority in Fluid Digital Space . . . . . . . . 211
6.2 Digital Consumer Spirituality: Fluid Spiritual Practice and Solid Emotional Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.2.1 Monastics Involvement in Spiritual Commercial Collaboration: Reasonability and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.2.2 Digital Spiritual Authenticity: A Solid Emotional Trust . . . . 240
6.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
List of symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289